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See gpart 8 for options to create partitions smaller than a whole disk. This happens commonly with virtual machines, when the virtual disk turns out to be too small and is enlarged. Sometimes a disk image is written to a USB memory stick, but does not use the full capacity. Here we describe how to resize or grow disk contents to take advantage of increased capacity. In this example, there is only one SATA disk in the system, so the drive will appear as ada0.

If the disk was formatted with the GPT partitioning scheme, it may show as "corrupted" because the GPT backup partition table is no longer at the end of the drive.

Fix the backup partition table with gpart :. Now the additional space on the disk is available for use by a new partition, or an existing partition can be expanded:.

Partitions can only be resized into contiguous free space. Here, the last partition on the disk is the swap partition, but the second partition is the one that needs to be resized.

Swap partitions only contain temporary data, so it can safely be unmounted, deleted, and then recreate the third partition after resizing the second partition. There is risk of data loss when modifying the partition table of a mounted file system. However, if absolutely necessary, a mounted file system can be resized after disabling GEOM safety features:. Resize the partition, leaving room to recreate a swap partition of the desired size. The partition to resize is specified with -i , and the new desired size with -s.

Optionally, alignment of the partition is controlled with -a. This only modifies the size of the partition. The file system in the partition will be expanded in a separate step. Recreate the swap partition and activate it. If no size is specified with -s , all remaining space is used:.

If the file system is ZFS, the resize is triggered by running the online subcommand with -e :. Both the partition and the file system on it have now been resized to use the newly-available disk space. USB 3. For a custom kernel, be sure that the following lines are present in the kernel configuration file:.

The rest of this section demonstrates how to verify that a USB storage device is recognized by FreeBSD and how to configure the device so that it can be used.

Use dmesg to confirm that the drive appears in the system message buffer. It should look something like this:. The brand, device node da0 , speed, and size will differ according to the device. Alternately, usbconfig can be used to list the device.

Refer to usbconfig 8 for more information about this command. If the device has not been formatted, refer to Adding Disks for instructions on how to format and create partitions on the USB drive. Allowing untrusted users to mount arbitrary media, by enabling vfs. Most file systems were not built to safeguard against malicious devices. To make the device mountable as a normal user, one solution is to make all users of the device a member of the operator group using pw 8.

This will exclude the first three SCSI disks da0 to da2 from belonging to the operator group. Replace 3 with the number of internal SCSI disks. Refer to devfs. Since this only takes effect after the next reboot, use sysctl to set this variable now:. The final step is to create a directory where the file system is to be mounted. This directory needs to be owned by the user that is to mount the file system. If the device is formatted with a FAT file system, the user can mount it using:.

Reload the configuration if autofs 5 and devd 8 are already running:. The directory is named after the file system label. If the label is missing, the directory is named after the device node. The file system is transparently mounted on the first access, and unmounted after a period of inactivity. Automounted drives can also be unmounted manually:. This mechanism is typically used for memory cards and USB memory sticks. Compact Disc CD media provide a number of features that differentiate them from conventional disks.

They are designed so that they can be read continuously without delays to move the head between tracks. While CD media do have tracks, these refer to a section of data to be read continuously, and not a physical property of the disk. The ISO file system was designed to deal with these differences.

This chapter demonstrates the use of several command line utilities. If a custom kernel is used, the options that need to be present in the kernel configuration file vary by the type of device. On FreeBSD versions prior to To verify that FreeBSD recognizes the device, run dmesg and look for an entry for the device.

On systems prior to While cdrecord has many options, basic usage is simple. Specify the name of the ISO file to burn and, if the system has multiple burner devices, specify the name of the device to use:. To determine the device name of the burner, use -scanbus which might produce results like this:. Locate the entry for the CD burner and use the three numbers separated by commas as the value for dev.

Refer to the manual page for cdrecord for other ways to specify this value and for information on writing audio tracks and controlling the write speed. Use the numeric values for scbus , target , and lun. For this example, 1,0,0 is the device name to use. In order to produce a data CD, the data files that are going to make up the tracks on the CD must be prepared before they can be burned to the CD.

The simplest usage is to specify the name of the ISO file to create and the path to the files to place into the ISO file system:. This command maps the file names in the specified path to names that fit the limitations of the standard ISO file system, and will exclude files that do not meet the standard for ISO file systems. A number of options are available to overcome the restrictions imposed by the standard.

The last option of general use is -b. This is used to specify the location of a boot image for use in producing an "El Torito" bootable CD. This option takes an argument which is the path to a boot image from the top of the tree being written to the CD. By default, mkisofs creates an ISO image in "floppy disk emulation" mode, and thus expects the boot image to be exactly , or KB in size. Some boot loaders, like the one used by the FreeBSD distribution media, do not use emulation mode.

In this case, -no-emul-boot should be used. There are many other options available for mkisofs to fine-tune its behavior. Refer to mkisofs 8 for details. It is possible to copy a data CD to an image file that is functionally equivalent to the image file created with mkisofs.

To do so, use dd with the device name as the input file and the name of the ISO to create as the output file:. Once an ISO has been burned to a CD, it can be mounted by specifying the file system type, the name of the device containing the CD, and an existing mount point:. Since mount assumes that a file system is of type ufs , an Incorrect super block error will occur if -t cd is not included when mounting a data CD.

While any data CD can be mounted this way, disks with certain ISO extensions might behave oddly. For example, Joliet disks store all filenames in two-byte Unicode characters. If some non-English characters show up as question marks, specify the local charset with -C. This can be done either by adding this line to loader. Occasionally, Device not configured will be displayed when trying to mount a data CD.

This usually means that the CD drive has not detected a disk in the tray, or that the drive is not visible on the bus. It can take a couple of seconds for a CD drive to detect media, so be patient. To resolve this, a custom kernel can be created which increases the default SCSI delay. This tells the SCSI bus to pause 15 seconds during boot, to give the CD drive every possible chance to answer the bus reset. This is known as burning a raw data CD and some people do this for backup purposes.

This type of disk can not be mounted as a normal data CD. In order to retrieve the data burned to such a CD, the data must be read from the raw device node. For example, this command will extract a compressed tar file located on the second CD device into the current working directory:. To duplicate an audio CD, extract the audio data from the CD to a series of files, then write these files to a blank CD.

If the FreeBSD version is less than This command can be used to extract all of the audio tracks, with each track written to a separate WAV file in the current working directory:. A device name does not need to be specified if there is only one CD device on the system.

Refer to the cdda2wav manual page for instructions on how to specify a device and to learn more about the other options available for this command. Make sure that 2,0 is set appropriately, as described in Burning a CD. This format is write once. A single layer recordable DVD can hold up to 4,,, bytes which is actually 4.

A distinction must be made between the physical media and the application. Before choosing the type of media, ensure that both the burner and the DVD-Video player are compatible with the media under consideration.

To perform DVD recording, use growisofs 1. This support is not needed if the burner uses the USB interface. Since growisofs 1 is a front-end to mkisofs , it will invoke mkisofs 8 to create the file system layout and perform the write on the DVD. This means that an image of the data does not need to be created before the burning process.

Refer to mkisofs 8 for more details. For the initial session recording, -Z is used for both single and multiple sessions. Using -dvd-compat indicates that the disk will be closed and that the recording will be unappendable. The write speed should be detected and automatically set according to the media and the drive being used.

Refer to growisofs 1 for example usage. In order to support working files larger than 4. This is required only when creating an ISO image file or when writing files directly to a disk. Otherwise it will look as if it contains corrupted files. When an ISO image already contains large files, no additional options are required for growisofs 1 to burn that image on a disk.

If an image of the DVD-Video file system already exists, it can be burned in the same way as any other image. This option implies the -dvd-compat growisofs 1 option. It is recommended to let growisofs 1 take care of this automatically whenever appropriate. Instead, write over the previous recording like this:. This operation consists of merging a new session to the existing one as it is not considered to be multi-session writing. The same mkisofs 8 options used to burn the initial session should be used during next writes.

However, a non-virgin DVD-RW in sequential format needs to be blanked before writing a new initial session. One should instead use restricted overwrite mode with any DVD-RW as this format is more flexible than the default of incremental sequential.

To append some data to a previous recording, use -M with growisofs 1. However, if data is appended on a DVD-RW in incremental sequential mode, a new session will be created on the disc and the result will be a multi-session disc.

Instead, overwrite the disc with -Z. It is also possible to grow an existing ISO file system written on the disc with -M. The result will be a one-session DVD. The result will be a single-session disc. Use this method to add data after an initial write on these types of media. Since some space on the media is used between each session to mark the end and start of sessions, one should add sessions with a large amount of data to optimize media space. In this example, the whole disk space will be formatted with a standard UFS2 file system:.

The DVD device, acd0 , must be changed according to the configuration. A floppy disk needs to be low-level formatted before it can be used.

This is usually done by the vendor, but formatting is a good way to check media integrity. To low-level format the floppy disk on FreeBSD, use fdformat 1. When using this utility, make note of any error messages, as these can help determine if the disk is good or bad. After low-level formatting the disk, create a disk label as it is needed by the system to determine the size of the disk and its geometry. To write the disk label, use bsdlabel 8 :. The floppy is now ready to be high-level formatted with a file system.

The disk is now ready for use. These file systems are implemented as user space programs which interact with the fusefs 5 kernel module via a well defined interface.

Before using a FUSE file system we need to load the fusefs 5 kernel module:. Use sysrc 8 to load the module at startup:. Suppose a USB disk is plugged in. The disk partition information can be viewed with gpart 8 :. Implementing a backup plan is essential in order to have the ability to recover from disk failure, accidental file deletion, random file corruption, or complete machine destruction, including destruction of on-site backups.

The backup type and schedule will vary, depending upon the importance of the data, the granularity needed for file restores, and the amount of acceptable downtime. Some possible backup techniques include:. Archives of the whole system, backed up onto permanent, off-site media. This provides protection against all of the problems listed above, but is slow and inconvenient to restore from, especially for non-privileged users.

File system snapshots, which are useful for restoring deleted files or previous versions of files. Typically, a mix of backup techniques is used. For example, one could create a schedule to automate a weekly, full system backup that is stored off-site and to supplement this backup with hourly ZFS snapshots. In addition, one could make a manual backup of individual directories or files before making file edits or deletions.

This section describes some of the utilities which can be used to create and manage backups on a FreeBSD system. These utilities work at the disk block level, below the abstractions of the files, links, and directories that are created by file systems. Unlike other backup software, dump backs up an entire file system and is unable to backup only part of a file system or a directory tree that spans multiple file systems.

Instead of writing files and directories, dump writes the raw data blocks that comprise files and directories. The default parameters assume a backup to a 9-track tape, rather than to another type of media or to the high-density tapes available today.

These defaults must be overridden on the command line. It is possible to backup a file system across the network to a another system or to a tape drive attached to another computer. While the rdump 8 and rrestore 8 utilities can be used for this purpose, they are not considered to be secure. Instead, one can use dump and restore in a more secure fashion over an SSH connection. Several built-in utilities are available for backing up and restoring specified files and directories as needed.

A good choice for making a backup of all of the files in a directory is tar 1. Switches can be used to instead specify the name of a backup file. When creating a backup file, make sure that the backup is not saved to the same directory that is being backed up. To restore the entire backup, cd into the directory to restore into and specify the name of the backup. Note that this will overwrite any newer versions of files in the restore directory.

When in doubt, restore to a temporary directory or specify the name of the file within the backup to restore. There are dozens of available switches which are described in tar 1. This utility also supports the use of exclude patterns to specify which files should not be included when backing up the specified directory or restoring files from a backup.

To create a backup using a specified list of files and directories, cpio 1 is a good choice. Unlike tar , cpio does not know how to walk the directory tree and it must be provided the list of files to backup. For example, a list of files can be created using ls or find. A backup utility which tries to bridge the features provided by tar and cpio is pax 1. Over the years, the various versions of tar and cpio became slightly incompatible. While tape technology has continued to evolve, modern backup systems tend to combine off-site backups with local removable media.

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Automatic deactivation of unsafe links that contain phishing scams, viruses, or malware. Drivers for some less-common video cards can be found in the xdrivers directory of the Ports Collection. Xorg attempts to use this driver when a specific driver is not found for the video card.

If more than one video card is present, the BusID identifier can be uncommented and set to select the desired card. A list of video card bus ID s can be displayed with pciconf -lv grep -B3 display. Xorg uses EDID to communicate with the monitor and detect the supported resolutions and refresh rates. Then it selects the most appropriate combination of settings to use with that monitor.

Other resolutions supported by the monitor can be chosen by setting the desired resolution in configuration files, or after the X server has been started with xrandr 1. Run xrandr 1 without any parameters to see a list of video outputs and detected monitor modes:. This shows that the DVI-0 output is being used to display a screen resolution of x pixels at a refresh rate of about 60 Hz.

Any of the other display modes can be selected with xrandr 1. For example, to switch to x at 60 Hz:. The type and quantity of output connectors varies between devices, and the name given to each output varies from driver to driver. So the first step is to run xrandr 1 to list all the available outputs:. The projector has been connected to the VGA1 output. If the resolution is not correctly detected, a fixed value can be given with --mode instead of the --auto statement.

For example, most projectors can be used with a x resolution, which is set with --mode x The standardized location of keys on a keyboard is called a layout.

Layouts and other adjustable parameters are listed in xkeyboard-config 7. A United States layout is the default. This will be applied to all input devices that match the class. Set United States, Spanish, and Ukrainian keyboard layouts. X can be closed with a combination of keys. By default, that key combination is not set because it conflicts with keyboard commands for some applications. Enabling this option requires changes to the keyboard InputDevice section:.

If using xorg-server 1. Many mouse parameters can be adjusted with configuration options. See mousedrv 4 for a full list. The number of buttons on a mouse can be set in the mouse InputDevice section of xorg. To set the number of buttons to In some cases, Xorg autoconfiguration does not work with particular hardware, or a different configuration is desired. For these cases, a custom configuration file can be created.

Do not create manual configuration files unless required. Unnecessary manual configuration can prevent proper operation. A configuration file can be generated by Xorg based on the detected hardware. This file is often a useful starting point for custom configurations.

Make any changes desired, then test that file using -retro so there is a visible background with:. The default fonts that ship with Xorg are less than ideal for typical desktop publishing applications. Large presentation fonts show up jagged and unprofessional looking, and small fonts are almost completely unintelligible.

And likewise with the freefont or other collections. There are two different modules that can enable this functionality. The freetype module is used in this example because it is more consistent with the other font rendering back-ends. Once the files have been copied into this directory, use mkfontscale to create a fonts. This is just the same as described in Type1 Fonts :. Extremely small fonts as with text in a high resolution display on a web page and extremely large fonts within LibreOffice will look much better now.

Several advanced features of the Xft font system can be tuned using this file; this section describes only some simple possibilities. For more details, please see fonts-conf 5. This file must be in XML format. Pay careful attention to case, and make sure all tags are properly closed.

Anti-aliasing makes borders slightly fuzzy, which makes very small text more readable and removes "staircases" from large text, but can cause eyestrain if applied to normal text. To exclude font sizes smaller than 14 point from anti-aliasing, include these lines:. Spacing for some monospaced fonts might also be inappropriate with anti-aliasing. This seems to be an issue with KDE, in particular.

One possible fix is to force the spacing for such fonts to be Add these lines:. Certain fonts, such as Helvetica, may have a problem when anti-aliased. Usually this manifests itself as a font that seems cut in half vertically. At worst, it may cause applications to crash. To avoid this, consider adding the following to local. After editing local. Not doing this will cause changes to be ignored.

This file uses the same XML format described above. One last point: with an LCD screen, sub-pixel sampling may be desired. This basically treats the horizontally separated red, green and blue components separately to improve the horizontal resolution; the results can be dramatic. To enable this, add the line somewhere in local. Depending on the sort of display, rgb may need to be changed to bgr , vrgb or vbgr : experiment and see which works best.

XDM provides a graphical interface for choosing which display server to connect to and for entering authorization information such as a login and password combination. Some desktop environments provide their own graphical login manager. This directory contains several files used to change the behavior and appearance of XDM, as well as a few scripts and programs used to set up the desktop when XDM is running. XDM Configuration Files summarizes the function of each of these files.

The exact syntax and usage of these files is described in xdm 8. By default, this file does not allow any remote clients to connect. This file controls the look and feel of the XDM display chooser and login screens. The default configuration is a simple rectangular login window with the hostname of the machine displayed at the top in a large font and "Login:" and "Password:" prompts below. The format of this file is identical to the app-defaults file described in the Xorg documentation.

The list of local and remote displays the chooser should provide as login choices. Default session script for logins which is run by XDM after a user has logged in. Script to automatically launch applications before displaying the chooser or login interfaces. Typically these scripts run one or two programs in the background such as xconsole. Contains errors generated by the server program.

If a display that XDM is trying to start hangs, look at this file for error messages. By default, only users on the same system can login using XDM. To enable users on other systems to connect to the display server, edit the access control rules and enable the connection listener.

Save the edits and restart XDM. This section describes how to install three popular desktop environments on a FreeBSD system. A desktop environment can range from a simple window manager to a complete suite of desktop applications.

Over a hundred desktop environments are available in the xwm category of the Ports Collection. GNOME is a user-friendly desktop environment. It includes a panel for starting applications and displaying status, a desktop, a set of tools and applications, and a set of conventions that make it easy for applications to cooperate and be consistent with each other. GNOME is a large application and will take some time to compile, even on a fast computer.

If this file does not exist, create it with this command:. A third method is to use XDM as the display manager. KDE is another easy-to-use desktop environment.

This desktop provides a suite of applications with a consistent look and feel, a standardized menu and toolbars, keybindings, color-schemes, internationalization, and a centralized, dialog-driven desktop configuration. To instead build the KDE port, use the following command.

Installing the port will provide a menu for selecting which components to install. KDE is a large application and will take some time to compile, even on a fast computer. KDE uses D-Bus for a message bus and hardware abstraction. These applications are automatically installed as dependencies of KDE.

A possible replacement is SDDM. To install it, type:. A second method for launching KDE Plasma is to type startx from the command line. Once KDE Plasma is started, refer to its built-in help system for more information on how to use its various menus and applications. However, it is more lightweight and provides a simple, efficient, easy-to-use desktop.

It is fully configurable, has a main panel with menus, applets, and application launchers, provides a file manager and sound manager, and is themeable. Since it is fast, light, and efficient, it is ideal for older or slower machines with memory limitations.

Xfce uses D-Bus for a message bus. This application is automatically installed as dependency of Xfce. An alternate method is to use XDM.

Desktop effects can cause quite a load on the graphics card. For an nVidia-based graphics card, the proprietary driver is required for good performance.

Users of other graphics cards can skip this section and continue with the xorg. To determine which nVidia driver is needed see the FAQ question on the subject. Having determined the correct driver to use for your card, installation is as simple as installing any other package. The driver will create a kernel module, which needs to be loaded at system startup. Use sysrc 8 to load the module at startup:. To immediately load the kernel module into the running kernel issue a command like kldload nvidia.

However, it has been noted that some versions of Xorg will not function properly if the driver is not loaded at boot time. With the kernel module loaded, you normally only need to change a single line in xorg.

Start the GUI as usual, and you should be greeted by the nVidia splash. Everything should work as usual. Locate the "Subsection" that refers to the screen resolution that you wish to use. For example, if you wish to use x, locate the section that follows. If the desired resolution does not appear in any subsection, you may add the relevant entry by hand:. When the installation is finished, start your graphic desktop and at a terminal, enter the following commands as a normal user :.

Your screen will flicker for a few seconds, as your window manager e. Emerald takes care of the window decorations i. You may convert this to a trivial script and have it run at startup automatically e.

Save this in your home directory as, for example, start-compiz and make it executable:. To actually select all the desired effects and their settings, execute again as a normal user the Compiz Config Settings Manager:.

If the mouse does not work, you will need to first configure it before proceeding. In recent Xorg versions, the InputDevice sections in xorg. To restore the old behavior, add the following line to the ServerLayout or ServerFlags section of this file:. Input devices may then be configured as in previous versions, along with any other options needed e.

This section contains partially outdated information. As previously explained the hald daemon will, by default, automatically detect your keyboard. For example if, one wants to use a PC keys keyboard coming with a french layout, we have to create a keyboard configuration file for hald called xinput. This file should contain the following lines:. If this file already exists, just copy and add to your file the lines regarding the keyboard configuration.

It is possible to do the same configuration from an X terminal or a script with this command line:. The xorg. Open the file in a text editor such as emacs 1 or ee 1. If the monitor is an older or unusual model that does not support autodetection of sync frequencies, those settings can be added to xorg. Most monitors support sync frequency autodetection, making manual entry of these values unnecessary. For the few monitors that do not support autodetection, avoid potential damage by only entering values provided by the manufacturer.

The xset 1 program controls the time-outs and can force standby, suspend, or off modes. If you wish to enable DPMS features for your monitor, you must add the following line to the monitor section:. While the xorg. This is defined in the "Screen" section:. The DefaultDepth keyword describes the color depth to run at by default. This can be overridden with the -depth command line switch to Xorg 1. The Modes keyword describes the resolution to run at for the given color depth.

In the example above, the default color depth is twenty-four bits per pixel. At this color depth, the accepted resolution is by pixels. One of the tools available to assist you during troubleshooting process are the Xorg log files, which contain information on each device that the Xorg server attaches to. The exact name of the log can vary from Xorg. If all is well, the configuration file needs to be installed in a common location where Xorg 1 can find it.

The Xorg configuration process is now complete. Xorg may be now started with the startx 1 utility. The Xorg server may also be started with the use of xdm 8. See the agp 4 driver manual page for more information. This will allow configuration of the hardware as any other graphics board. Note on systems without the agp 4 driver compiled in the kernel, trying to load the module with kldload 8 will not work.

This section assumes a bit of advanced configuration knowledge. If attempts to use the standard configuration tools above have not resulted in a working configuration, there is information enough in the log files to be of use in getting the setup working. Use of a text editor will be necessary. Examples of some common screen resolutions for aspect ratios are:. At some point, it will be as easy as adding one of these resolutions as a possible Mode in the Section "Screen" as such:.

If those ModeLines do not exist in the drivers, one might need to give Xorg a little hint. Simply look for information resembling this:. This information is called EDID information.